Chainmail, the defining feature of knights' armor and protective workwear (think about butchers’ aprons and fishmongers and oyster shuckers’ gloves…) has been continuously reimagined by fashion designers across decades.
Some of the most iconic interpretations include Paco Rabanne's futuristic dresses and Gianni Versace's shimmering oroton. More recently, Florence Pugh appeared in the film "Dune: Part Two" (2024) in the role of Princess Irulan, a warrior princess à la Joan of Arc, clad in a striking chainmail ensemble. Her costume, evocative of a nun's habit, also echoed elements from Julien Dossena's A/W 2020-21 collection for Paco Rabanne (View this photo).
Yet, the concept of chainmail is evolving in unexpected ways, not just in fashion, but through scientific breakthroughs. Recent experiments in the laboratory of Chiara Daraio, G. Bradford Jones Professor of Mechanical Engineering and Applied Physics at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in Pasadena and Heritage Medical Research Institute Investigator, have led to the discovery of an entirely new class of architected materials.
Published in the magazine Science (in January 2025) under the title "3D PolyCatenated Architected Materials," the research focuses on innovative materials. PolyCatenated Architected Materials (PAMs) are indeed structures that defy conventional classification. Unlike traditional materials, PAMs display a dual mechanical response: they flow like a fluid under shear forces yet behave as a solid under compression. This emergent property positions PAMs in a novel category, distinct from both granular and crystalline matter.
What have they got in common with chainmail? Well, they are inspired by the interlocking rings of chainmail. However, while chainmail relies on simple interconnections, PAMs incorporate a more complex three-dimensional arrangement of interwoven elements, characterized by an unimaginably variable configurational freedom.
The scientists experimenting with PAMs computationally modelled them and then fabricated them with diverse substrates, including acrylic polymers, nylon, and metallic alloys, using 3D printing technologies.
As highlighted above, the hierarchical architecture of PAMs enables them to undergo dynamic mechanical transitions. Under compressive loading, they exhibit structural rigidity similar to crystalline solids, while under shear deformation, their interlinked components freely rearrange resulting in near-frictionless flow similar to the behavior of non-Newtonian fluids. This dual nature was rigorously analyzed through rheology tests, where cube- and sphere-shaped PAM samples were subjected to controlled compression, shear, and torsional forces.
Scientists have highlighted the diversity of PAMs, explaining that they can be fabricated from both soft and rigid materials. They point out that the shape of individual particles and the lattice structure connecting them can be tailored, with each adjustment influencing the material's properties. Regardless of these variations, though, all PAMs share a defining characteristic: a transition between fluid-like and solid-like behavior, which occurs under different conditions and remains a consistent feature across all configurations.
Blurring the boundary between solid and fluid phases, PAMs therefore possess both an interconnected, ordered structure and an exceptional capacity for large-scale configurational rearrangement. Their unique ability to dissipate energy makes them highly promising for impact-resistant applications, including protective gear, advanced cushioning systems, and next-generation morphing architectures. Unlike conventional foams, PAMs can slide, rotate, and reorganize at the molecular level, enhancing their ability to absorb mechanical energy, a quality ideal for innovations in helmet design, aerospace engineering, and adaptive packaging solutions.
Beyond their mechanical adaptability, preliminary microscale investigations suggest that PAMs exhibit electromechanical responsiveness, expanding or contracting in reaction to applied electrical fields. This discovery unlocks possibilities for biomedical engineering, including soft robotics and adaptive implants.
While PAMs remain in the research phase, their lightweight strength and shape-shifting potential hold exciting promise in prosthetics and assistive technologies, particularly for individuals with neurodegenerative conditions such as Alzheimer's. Their adaptive mechanical properties, lightweight structure, and energy-absorbing capabilities could indeed offer more comfortable, pressure-responsive adaptive prosthetic liners or dynamic joint components in prosthetic parts such as knees that could benefit from PAMs' ability to shift between fluid-like movement under stress and structural stability when needed. Who knows, PAMs could also be ideal for custom-fitting orthopaedic aids and stimuli-responsive sensory aids Integrated into smart textiles, as PAMs could respond to touch or pressure, potentially aiding in tactile stimulation therapy to enhance cognitive engagement.
Beyond medical applications, PAMs may present fascinating opportunities in fashion and wearable design (besides, if further studies confirm their ability to expand or contract in response to environmental conditions, they could even revolutionize accessories, think scarves, gloves, or headwear that self-adjust for warmth and breathability...).
Their unique interplay of flexibility and rigidity makes them an ideal candidate for adaptive insoles and midsoles, offering responsive cushioning and impact resistance to enhance comfort for both athletes and everyday wearers. Biometric-responsive wristbands could harness PAMs' ability to react to electrical stimuli, enabling accessories that tighten or loosen based on biometric feedback, such as heart rate or body temperature. Shock-absorbing elements in bags could provide both impact resistance and aesthetic appeal, while modular, shape-shifting jewellery might introduce an entirely new approach to personal adornment. Imagine pieces that morph in response to movement, shifting form and structure based on style preferences or functional needs, perhaps even offering medical benefits, such as reducing strain on joints.
Collaboration between engineers, neuroscientists, and healthcare professionals is always crucial in developing new materials, but as research on PAMs progresses, it would be exciting to see fashion designers brought into the conversation. Their expertise in form, movement, and wearability could indeed open new possibilities for integrating these adaptable materials into both functional and aesthetic applications. In the meantime, the pursuit of hybrid materials - those that exist between states, like, in this case, granular and elastic deformable materials - continues to push the boundaries of what is possible.
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